Banks, gangsters and the strange resurgence of cash

https://www.economist.com/1843/2021/10/18/billions-of-banknotes-are-missing-why-does-nobody-care

by saganus • 5 years ago

159 242 5 years ago

h2odragon• 5 years ago

They are circulating in places beyond the borders, I assume. We let North Korea print their own$100 bills for years as a form of off the books aid, but once that stopped the underworld needed someone to provide the currency.

Remember the pallets of cash being sent to Iraq?

eganist• 5 years ago

I had to Google the north korea thing.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superdollar

TIL. Thanks!

joe_the_user2• 5 years ago

I'd just note a full read of the article shows that the origin of the bills is apparently quite murky and North Korea is just one of several accused sources. Israel blames Syria, some US media blames the CIA. Nothing is proven and nothing is certain.

fy20• 5 years ago

The most interesting part of that article was this:

On 21 December 2011, the Irish High Court dismissed the US application for Garland's extradition,[4][25] as the alleged offence took place in Ireland and was therefore not subject to extradition.

I wonder why the UK doesn't have that clause but Ireland does?

petilon• 5 years ago

We let North Korea print their own $100 bills for years as a form of off the books aid

That's very hard to believe. Citation needed!

smokelegend• 5 years ago

See previous "Super Bill" Wikipedia link comment.

It happened/may still be happening for all we know.

chii• 5 years ago

which part? The 'we let' them part? or the fact that NK is able to print?

bserge2• 5 years ago

Well, it's like saying "we let organized crime run rampant", implying there's a choice to stop it.

Which I now realize might be true...

dustintrex• 5 years ago

https://archive.md/2021.10.20-145649/https://www.economist.c...

paxys• 5 years ago

I don't know why the article frames it as some crazy big mystery and tries to come up with different hypotheses for it throughout. The answer is clear from the very first example they start with, and explained further towards the end – the cash is circulating in the grey/black market economy and across international borders. Demand for cash is rising because this economy is growing at a similar rate to the regular one.

As for the "why does nobody care part", the possible explanation is unconvincing. Yes central banks enjoy the power of being the sole issuer of currency, but the few cents per note they get to keep is hardly where their real interests lie.

hungryforcodes3• 5 years ago

Or it could be kind of "propoganda" / PR from the people who are proponents of a cashless society. An assassination of cash in the media would be the logical place to start.

rsj_hn3• 5 years ago

There is a lot of rumor and speculation about very benign things.

1. Precautionary savings. In a low interest rate environment, there is not the same penalty for holding cash as getting interest in a savings account. A lot of people find it prudent to have a buffer of cash, say enough to cover 1 month of expenses. So cash withdrawn from an ATM but put into a piggybank or under the mattress will appear here as "missing". If you want to change the situation, then raise interest rates and increase law and order.

2. Crime. Sure, crime is conducted in cash, and a lot of that money is funneled to Latin America. This is a known thing -- it's more seignorage income for the Fed unless the cash comes back into the economy, but much of it never will as several economies are dollarized. I don't think there has been a material increase in organized crime, so I would think household precautionary savings is the reason.

3. Let's get some perspective. $50 Billion in cash is basically nothing. It's like 2% of currency in circulation. So this whole article is complaining that 2% of currency is not circulating. Well, OK. Must be a slow day over at the Economist.

https://fred.stlouisfed.org/series/WCURCIR

bombcar2• 5 years ago

It’s $166 per person in the USA. The horror.

dylan6045• 5 years ago

I could spend that $166 better than how it is being used now, so can I have mine back?

is_true• 5 years ago

Argentinians have a lot of cash that they (we) use as an edge against inflation

anonporridge12• 5 years ago

I assume you mean USD cash to hedge against inflation of Argentinian pesos?

anonporridge12• 5 years ago

The precautionary savings of physical cash may even be on the rise as people realize how easily their economic lives could be switched off in an instant in the increasingly digital world, whether by being intentionally targeted or accidentally disabled with a lot of bureaucracy slowing down the correction.

Having enough cash under your mattress that authority figures can't easily take from you is a psychological comfort.

mbg721• 5 years ago

Physical cash that buys less and less with each passing day is not as useful, though.

tobyjsullivan2• 5 years ago

Pseudo-relevant anecdote: I wanted to buy a used car a few months ago off someone on Facebook. We were meeting up same day so the easiest method seemed to be cash. I went to the bank to withdraw $7000 and was informed, much to my surprise, that it is impossible to withdraw more than $3000 without 48 hours notice.

Suffice it to say, I've been seriously considering the tradeoffs of hoarding cash under my mattress.

dv_dt• 5 years ago

But there is also a record level of natural disasters in term of flood and fire. I wonder if an unusual level of cash was destroyed

chiph2• 5 years ago

Hurricane season started in the southeastern US on June 1st. It's not uncommon for folks to have a few hundred in cash for when the power goes out and the credit card terminals aren't working.

imroot• 5 years ago

Slowing down the correction?

I had 40K taken by US Bank last year...365 days have passed and they're still coming up with excuses as to why they can't disburse that amount to me.

Thank god that I had the insight to start a savings account at a Credit Union about 10 years ago, and moved half of my paychecks there via direct deposit.

I now keep cash in a safe (what safety am I getting keeping that cash in a CD at .05%?) as my savings account.

chiefalchemist• 5 years ago

50,000 million? Yes, that's broader economy chump change. But, toss it in a suit case, move it off shore, and the magnitude increases (especially if it's a corruption tool). I think the question is: how does the current % size up historically? (I wasn't able to read the whole article.)

cptaj• 5 years ago

I live in Venezuela and we've had forex controls for 2 decades now.

Our currency has also depreciated massively over the years to the point of being useless.

We've unofficially dollarized a lot of cash operations so I bet a bunch of it is here.

Cuba and Argentina have similar forex controls.

This is probably the case all over the world.

razius• 5 years ago

I always wondered, how is the unofficial USD rate set there?

Just day to day or do you have an app or something that the people follow?

inopinatus2• 5 years ago

There is a lot of rumor and speculation about very benign things.

There is certainly misrepresentation and rumour-mongering in these comments, but not in the article, and there's nothing benign about international money laundering, or more precisely, nothing benign about the people it enables.

$50 Billion in cash is basically nothing. It's like 2% of currency in circulation.

This is very far from the numbers quoted in the article, which shows two thirds (£50bn) of all British pounds sterling banknotes (£75bn) being unaccounted for, and then similarly one-half of all Euros apparently circulating outside the eurozone.

This article wasn't written by, or from the perspective of, Americans. There's a brief mention, though - $7,000 per US citizen is in circulation. Somewhere.

this whole article is complaining

There are no complaints registered in the article, unless you count the cash mule's plaintive wail about how heavy the suitcase was.

This article is a careful discussion about folks in authority seeming unburdened by the discrepancy.

raise interest rates and increase law and order

Parochialism doesn't solve global issues.

tristor2• 5 years ago

One thing that's also benign but not mentioned by the grandparent is that any economy which has considerable foreign travelers passing through will likely end up losing some cash. I have two pint glasses sitting on my desk, one for coins, the other for bills, they are literally packed full of money from my various travels. Last time I checked, I had almost 300 euros in there and I haven't been in the Eurozone in quite some time (pandemic notwithstanding). I'm not sure if others are like me, but usually I just get cash from an ATM and pay the conversion fee but I refuse to convert back because the money changers at the train stations and airports rip you even harder than the ATM does. It just rubs me the wrong way to take it both coming and going on the conversion. So I keep the bills, and at worst case they're souvenirs.

ClumsyPilot• 5 years ago

"one-half of all Euros apparently circulating outside the eurozone."

Its common for wealthy (upper middle class, not oligarch) folks in Russia to have proper safe at home, and to keep thousands of Euros in cash there.

They often use Euro's because Ruble devalues a lot. Additionally, they have justified distrust in the ability of the government to run the economy and banking system, and it is their stash in case either collapses.

So cash does not mean Crime, it could also mean you don't want to be left out in the cold.

bigger_inside• 5 years ago

"Money Laundering" is the narrative that always drives monetary controls, and by inference, when they're successful, everything that's not under digital surveillance is under suspicion of money-laundering. In practice, AML laws don't protect from large sums being washed by nefarious billionaires at all - as we well know, the existing banking systems with their tax and reporting havens are well able to handle large amounts of official money officially, and still out of sight. In practice, AML is a narrative that serves to legitimize controls on quite lower levels - in the 1000s. 2% of cash unaccounted for is nothing, and - I mean, preaching to the choir here - to try to hinder surveillance regimes (in the sociological sense, not the dictatorship sense) is absolutely legitimate for every normal person.

Also, western privilege: western banks rarely close their doors and leave you without access to your digital money, and rarely hyperinflate it away without any recourse (though they also have, historically). While cash doesn't protect against the second danger, it well protects against the first -within- western countries. Now, in other places hoarding Euros and Dollars, it protects against both.

Anit-Money-Laundering (AML) laws, in practice, do not protect us from greedy billionaires. They protect surveillance and hyperinflation states from citizens trying to protect themselves against them.

TheBobinator• 5 years ago

Almost all US banks have had upside down Texas ratios since 2000. Used to be savings accounts paid the rate of inflation, but not paying inflation and driving investments into riskier classes is the way they are driving revenue to pay off their bad debts.

With covid, the likelihood of bank failures has risen considerably as the savings money is drying up or moving out of cities and investment risks have raised considerably. Historically, whenever banks got systemically over-levered and they try to avoid a systemic banking collapse, they come for the commoners assets. Last time around they did gold confisaction. I remember in 08 they were talking about confiscating 401k money into the stock market.

This is no different. This is a creepy article full of trite anecdotes and observational BS that demonizes anyone that uses cash as a drug dealer or sex trafficker and doesn't mention the root issue.

Arbalest• 5 years ago

If we read into this article as pushing an agenda, then the agenda is probably written here. https://blogs.imf.org/2019/02/05/cashing-in-how-to-make-nega...

EastOfTruth2• 5 years ago

So this whole article is complaining that 2% of currency is not circulating.

And 40% of US dollars in existence were printed in the last 12 months: https://techstartups.com/2021/05/22/40-us-dollars-existence-...

criddell• 5 years ago

Instead of spending the money on food, savings, or paying off debts, some people invested their stimulus checks in stocks (GameStop, etc.), and cryptocurrencies like bitcoins further driving up their prices.

I've never thought about rising stock prices as inflation before.

southerntofu• 5 years ago

A lot of people find it prudent to have a buffer of cash

Cash is always more trustworthy than a bank, if you can ensure its safety. Many people during the greek "crisis" (eg. when the Greek government took money from the people to distribute to the foreign Troïka under the pretext of a misrepresented "debt") wish they had not stored their money in banks.

2. Crime. Sure, crime is conducted in cash

I don't have stats, but i think you'd be surprised how much of crime does not use cash. I mean sure, drug trafficking probably involves cash at all levels, but the most serious crimes committed by people in power don't. These people bank-wire funds to remote accounts, as exemplified in the Pandora (and previous) leaks.

Also worth pointing out, cash is the money of the poor. Even when you're too poor/indebted for banks to open an account for you, you can still handle cash daily to survive. Even when you have a bank account, you can usually withdraw your cash before being seized, because money seizures usually take at least a day. So, say your corrupt government/justice has indebted you to a boss/landowner for incredible sums: even if you earn your wage via bank transfer, keeping it in cash is your only option to avoid feeding the insanely-rich and eating dirt yourself.

bogota• 5 years ago

The economist has been killing me for a long time. They use to have what I thought were good articles or maybe i was just less informed although I don’t think that has changed in the past 2 years when i noticed a huge drop in quality.

If anyone has any good news sources please let me know. The economist was the last thing i was reading before it stopped putting out quality content.

bainsfather• 5 years ago

I know what you mean. In my case also, I think it is a combination of me being better informed about the world and the economist declining somewhat over time. BUT I started reading it 25 years ago, and still do read it a bit.

In terms of other news sources - I have no great advice. Here in the uk, I read the Financial Times - it is also rather international - maybe have a look at it. I would say that it is ok rather than great - but it is nice to get your news from more than one place. Private Eye is excellent, but mainly just for a subset of uk news.

I would like to have one "go-to" news source that I could rely on. But that is apparently not possible. So I read a few different things, and try to judge from their different stories what is really going on. Interestingly, I find that hn is a good source of quality information and insight, although it (of course) doesn't cover everything that I want to know about.

ausername42027• 5 years ago

Downplaying is being "only" 2% of currency in circulation is really strange. It is 2% of currency in circulation of the world's largest economy and the de facto international currency. The US accounts for almost 16% of the GLOBAL GDP when adjusted for PPP.

I guess people just love to be contrarians on HN.

Waterluvian2• 5 years ago

I have like $200 cash just sitting in my room for years in case I need it for something that doesn’t take debit or credit like a carnival trip (I haven’t carried cash, ever, in years).

I wonder how many others do the same? It adds up I imagine.

lowercased• 5 years ago

probably does add up, but... there's loads of folks with no cash... which might balance it out...?

i've got ... ~$1000/cash in the house. There's an occasional consideration of regional power outages where we might need to leave the area for a day or two (has happened yet, but we came close twice). Mostly useful to pay handyman/lawn guys now and then, then top it up now and then. Have considered holding on to a bit more, but we've never really needed more than a few hundred at any one point, so not sure there's much utility.

Ralo• 5 years ago

Wouldn't that be accounted for already? You withdrew that from a bank.

Waterluvian2• 5 years ago

Oh perhaps. Maybe I misunderstand the situation but I thought if it wasn’t being circulated for years it would be considered unaccounted for.

yholio2• 5 years ago

I have a cash stash in my car for this very reason. I can't count the number of times it got me out of deep crap. When you are on an outdoors expedition in the middle of nowhere, you can lose your wallet, your phone might lose signal, you will find rural services that only take cash.

Always having the money for a full tank of gas and a night of cheap accommodation can prevent those very bad decisions and situations where you need to call the local authorities to rescue you, or worse. It's a bona fide survival technique for the modern world.

lotsofpulp• 5 years ago

I keep much more cash than that in case there is a problem with electricity or the bank networks or my electronic accounts get seized.

malwarebytess• 5 years ago

What if it's simpler than that.

People still use cash, but most of the "money" is tied up in finance's parasitism. So while the amount of e-cash has skyrocketed, cash is still circulating and in high use/demand among the people. I know that for facebook marketplace/craiglist I exclusively use cash... when I buy something from my neighbors or go to a non-chain market I go out of my way to use cash since it saves on transaction fees (and taxes, lol.)

I buy and restore classic cars as a hobby and I always buy/sell them in cash if I can.

anm89• 5 years ago

I remember reading a while back that at some point at the beginning of our time in Afghanistan, at some point we shipped multiple pallets of bundled $100 dollar bills and we had no idea where any of it went

https://www.theguardian.com/world/2007/feb/08/usa.iraq1

hunterb1233• 5 years ago

We have a habit of doing that:

https://www.cnn.com/2016/08/03/politics/us-sends-plane-iran-...

knownjorbist2• 5 years ago

This isn't the same at all, other than it's a lot of money going somewhere in the middle east.

It was their own money being returned to them and not pallets earmarked for development disappearing into the night.

yholio2• 5 years ago

Why, as kickbacks to the future taliban government, a.k.a the former democratic leadership of Afghanistan, of course.

stanski• 5 years ago

I guess we live in a time when cash is now a scary thing. This is kind of funny... And makes me feel old.

da_big_ghey2• 5 years ago

No this probably is astroturfing a fear of what is being done with cash, try to make it seem like having cash is not normal and only for crime, then government can ban it to gain more complete control on monetary system and all transaction.

Loranubi• 5 years ago

Billions of new banknotes are printed every day. Why does nobody care?

mikewarot• 5 years ago

Supply chains are disrupted everywhere, wouldn't it be a quite reasonable precaution to have a large amount of cash on hand, like having a months worth of toilet paper, just in case? Running out of either is not fun.

I also have 1 real US dollar that I keep in my wallet as a reminder, it was minted in New Orleans in 1901, it's 120 years old, and can't be inflated away like Johnson sandwiches or paper money.

StanislavPetrov• 5 years ago

I find it strange that people trust the banks with their money, given their history and their behavior.

onlyrealcuzzo• 5 years ago

Deposit insurance?

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deposit_insurance

It seems like most countries have an equivalent of FDIC.

imtringued• 5 years ago

In my opinion the deposit insurance programs are ok but the way they are financed basically begs banks to be insolvent because eventually the government chips in and that's where they end up making their guaranteed profits.

leetcrew• 5 years ago

what's the alternative? there's a small risk that the bank screws me at some point, but if I don't make some kind of positive EV investment with my savings, it's a near guarantee that I'll never be able to retire.

q1w22• 5 years ago

I trust the bank more than I trust my mattress.

All risks are relative.

walterbell3• 5 years ago

This month, G7 finance ministers released a policy paper on Central Bank Digital Currencies, https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/g7-public-policy-...

When designing CBDCs, public authorities should look to build in ways of countering fraud and other forms of illicit finance by looking to incorporate advancements in technology and/or innovative solutions that may improve the authentication and verification of transactions.
Public authorities’ powers and use of data in any CBDC ecosystem to counter their use for illicit finance should be set out transparently in national legislative frameworks (see Principle 2) and those powers should not be used for other purposes.

We can expect bank lobbying in G7 countries for new legal kill-switch, data harvesting and analytics powers to "authenticate and verify" EVERY transaction that uses a national CBDC. Since CBDCs are scheduled for deployment by 2025, the pre-requisite national legislation would be needed by 2023.

badrabbit• 5 years ago

All noncash methods of payment have strings attached where consumers and merchants alike are subject to various controls and costs. Cash is simple, exchange something in your posession for goods and services. It cannot be used as a means of identity based regulation or to audit who is buying what from whom. I mean, bitcoin exists because of how unacceptable this is to everyone but the middlemen, bureaucrats and purse clutchers. It seems a bit obvious but I wanted to stress on this point that a cash resurgence could just mean market participants wanting more liberty.

walterbell3• 5 years ago

Yes, articles like this one can become inadvertent advertisements for the benefits of cash.

hungryforcodes3• 5 years ago

What's wrong with cash?

GoOnThenDoTell• 5 years ago

Cash transactions have different ‘controls’ rather than being simple, like: Do I feel safe being near you? Do I feel safe letting you know I have money at all? Will you retain product after payment?

bserge2• 5 years ago

I always have cash because the bank, at any point, can decide to freeze my account until I show up in person with some arbitrary ID/documents and beg on my knees.

That's the reality for most people and they don't even realize it.

I guess once you have enough money it's different, but for an average non-millionaire chump, it's best not to trust anyone too much.

sofixa2• 5 years ago

That's why i personally have a few bank accounts in different banks, with cards on different networks. The risk of a banking/network error is significantly lower that way.

lazide20• 5 years ago

Oddly - cash can be, and appears to be, widely tracked. Many ATMs scan serial numbers of bills, and network analysis of that data can be VERY informative.

refurb• 5 years ago

Do you have a source? How valuable is knowing the serial number of an ATM dispensed bill?

Very little cash is deposited into an ATM. Any time I’ve deposited cash I’ve never seen it scanned (it goes into the drawer).

And if it were scanned at multiple points think of the cash in a register at a store? How many transactions does it go through before getting scanned again? Especially smaller bills?

Seeing that a bill was dispensed at an ATM on Market St in San Francisco then deposited by a restaurant in San Mateo 1 month later tells you what exactly?

kavalg• 5 years ago

But how would they track spending then?

AnimalMuppet• 5 years ago

Cash is a transaction mechanism that no outside party can block. A power out can't; a failed computer or a network outage can't; even a government can't. That has a certain charm.

DeathArrow• 5 years ago

Any link without the paywall?

aphroz• 5 years ago

Maybe this: http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:w1IazCk...

galaxyLogic2• 5 years ago

There is the interesting history of Mansa Musa whose lavish spending of gold caused a recession. So it's not like gold is an absolutely safe asset either. It's possible we will find much more gold in Earth's mantle or on some asteroids. Then what?

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mansa_Musa#Islam_and_pilgrimag...

spiralx• 5 years ago

Europe had the Great Bullion Famine in the 15th century causing deflation across the continent, which was ended by the Spanish flooding Europe with gold from the Americas, causing massive inflation instead.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Bullion_Famine

A long period of deflation followed by a long period of over-inflation doesn't scream stability to me.

justshowpost• 5 years ago

Nothing is strange here. Interest rates are dull and Sleepy Joe is about to spy on everything over $599, so money are much safe in the wall safe. That is, not every American can afford offshore banking services.

gremloni• 5 years ago

Cash is king. Totally anonymous, easy to carry and works when there’s no power grid. Long live cash.

nivenkos3• 5 years ago

I hope to see the day we ban cash. Here in Sweden, it's almost there.

It's pretty much only used by tax dodgers and criminals here now.

eitland2• 5 years ago

Next door, in Norway, the Norwegian bank is quite clear that accepting cash is required for every shop and failure to do so will be punished (unmanned kiosks and vending machines seems to be allowed though).

I'm actually in favour of that, not because I fear my current government but because it

- is convenient (much better than gift cards)

- feels good to be able to buy stuff without telling my bank and Google and who knows who else what I buy

- the banks reason is because it might be necessary in emergencies which also seems like a really good reason.

nivenkos3• 5 years ago

But banning cash, stops all petty crime, tax evasion, drug dealing, etc. immediately.

It's such a great solution and we're so close!

No-one will rob you when you have no cash to take, and they can't sell your phone anywhere since it could be traced (and the phone is now locked out and banned via IMEI, etc.).

Technology could make society so much safer, so easily.

And cards can work offline in an emergency, like they do on aeroplanes. Just normal shops would need to have this capability.

selfhoster11• 5 years ago

Must be nice to never expect your government to turn against you.

MomoXenosaga• 5 years ago

Amusing most people I know only use cash for drug dealers. Even my mom stopped using cash when the pandemic hit. But I am located in a stable country so mileage may vary.

satellite2• 5 years ago

This seemingly counterintuitive paradox can be explained by demand for banknotes as a store of value in the euro area coupled with demand for euro banknotes outside the euro area,” the ECB’s analysis concluded. Strip away the jargon and it’s just another way of saying that people want banknotes because people want banknotes.

I think they missed the point massively in this article, the ECB comment is pretty self explanatory.

What they mean here is that other central banks (Japan and China for instance) and autocrats (and not gangsters at least not significantly) prefer keeping their foreign currency in cash despite the extra costs because western countries have the annoying habit to lock foreign electronic funds on a whim.

dade_• 5 years ago

People that live in countries with unstable or collapsed currencies use USD (I assume the same of Euros and GBP) as well. Everyone in Cuba wants USD now for example. It isn’t for money laundering or terrorism, it is for toothpaste and clothing. I imagine Euros are popular in Turkey these days.

cascom• 5 years ago

I don’t know how you write an article on this subject and don’t mention this. Argentina, Venezuela, etc. USD/EUR cash is how people save/avoid inflation.

Plus USD is the official (?) currency in Panama, and de facto currency in half the Caribbean.

Not to mention the western governments have been shipping cash by the plane load into conflict zones to pay off war lords and other leaders

q1w22• 5 years ago

Also extremely common in Myanmar and much of Africa. It is literally considered the WORLD reserve currency.

The more turmoil in economies abroad, the more USD is in demand to replace failing currencies.

Turkey is a great example - people were paying a premium on USD just to get their savings out of Turkish Lira a couple years ago.

davidgerard• 5 years ago

J. P. Koning noticed this a year ago - he blames crooks having a hard time laundering money in pandemic lockdowns. https://jpkoning.blogspot.com/2020/07/how-pandemic-has-clogg...

bouncycastle2• 5 years ago

I like to use cash for the privacy.

If you are concerned about giving your data to Facebook, then you should also be concerned about giving your data to the banks. I'd argue that the banks have more important information on you, and you never known who they share it with

stronglikedan• 5 years ago

I like to use cash for the bribery. Not the illegal/corrupt kind, but the little things. Like not having to wait for a table at a restaurant, or having my valeted car already at the curb when I walk out. There will always be a place for cash.

bouncycastle2• 5 years ago

Exactly! Cash is king in this. You can just slip it under, no need for anyone to carry electronic terminals and fiddling with buttons or touch screens.

And also vending machines! (Especially when you're a tourist in another country.)

silexia• 5 years ago

Wells Fargo recently charged me $12 to deposit $9,000 cash. I have more cash, but why would I deposit it if they take it? I can use it to get discounts from service companies instead.

FateOfNations• 5 years ago

Transacting in cash isn't as "free" as many people like to think. There are real costs associated with processing, transporting, and securing it that someone has to pay.

Banks, gangsters and the strange resurgence of cash

Related Stories